.net pdf 417

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In 1878, two years after perfecting his speaking telegraph (which became the telephone), Alexander Graham Bell created a device that transmitted the human voice through the air for distances of up to 200 meters. The device, which he called the Photophone, used carefully angled mirrors to reflect sunlight onto a diaphragm that was attached to a mouthpiece, as shown in Figure 6-13. At the receiving end (see Figure 6-14), the light was concentrated by a parabolic mirror onto a selenium resistor, which was connected to a battery and speaker. The diaphragm vibrated when struck by the human voice, which in turn caused the intensity of the light striking the resistor to vary. The selenium resistor, in turn, caused the current flow to vary in concert with the varying sunlight, which caused the received sound to come out of the speaker with remarkable fidelity. This represented the birth of optical transmission. Optical transmission in its early days was limited in terms of what it was capable of doing. Consider the following analogy. If you look through a two-foot-square pane of window glass, it appears clear. If the glass is clean, it is virtually invisible. However, if you turn the pane on edge and look through it from edge to edge, the glass appears to be dark green. Very little light passes from one edge to the other. In this example, you are looking through two feet of glass. Imagine trying to pass a highbandwidth optical signal through 40 or more kilometers of that glass!

Again, add the values: jX = j30 + ( j110) = j(30 110) = j80. This is a pure capacitive reactance, because it is negative imaginary.

A pair of cylindrical coils, wound around a rod-shaped piece of powdered iron or ferrite, was once a common configuration for transformers at radio frequencies. Sometimes this type of transformer is still seen, although it is most often used as a loopstick antenna in portable radio receivers and in radio direction-finding equipment.

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Problem 16-3 Suppose a coil of inductance L = 5.00 H and a capacitor of capacitance C = 200 pF are connected in series. Suppose the frequency is f = 4.00 MHz. What is the net reactance First, calculate the reactance of the inductor at 4.00 MHz. Proceed as follows:

332 Transformers and impedance matching The coil windings might be placed one atop the other, or they might be separated (Fig. 18-5) to reduce the capacitance between the primary and secondary.

In a loopstick antenna, the primary serves to pick up the radio signals. The secondary winding provides the best impedance match to the first amplifier stage, or front end, of the radio. The use of transformers for impedance matching is discussed later in this chapter.

jXL = j6.28f L = j(6.28 4.00 5.00) = j126 Next, calculate the reactance of the capacitor at 4.00 MHz. Proceed as follows: jX C = j[1/(6.28f C )] = j[1/(6.28 4.00 0.000200)] = j199 Finally, add the inductive and capacitive reactances to obtain the net reactance: jX = jXL + jX C = j126 + ( j199) = j 73 This is a pure capacitive reactance.

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In recent years, the toroidal core has become the norm for winding radio-frequency transformers. The toroid is a donut-shaped ring of powdered iron or ferrite. The coils are wound around the donut. The primary and secondary might be wound one over the other, or they might be wound over different parts of the core (Fig. 18-6). As with other transformers, when the windings are one atop the other, there is more inter-winding capacitance than when they are separate.

Problem 16-4 What is the net reactance of the aforementioned inductor and capacitor combination at the frequency f = 10.0 MHz

In 1966, Charles Kao and Charles Hockham at the United Kingdom s Standard Telecommunication Laboratory (now part of Nortel Networks) published their seminal work, demonstrating that optical fiber could be used to carry information, provided its end-to-end signal loss could be kept below 20 dB per kilometer. Keeping in mind that the decibel scale is logarithmic, 20 dB of loss means that 99 percent of the light would be lost over each kilometer of distance. Only 1 percent would actually reach the receiver, and that s a one-kilometer run. Imagine the loss over today s fiber cables that are hundreds of kilometers long if 20 dB was the modern performance criterion! Kao and Hockham proved that metallic impurities in the glass such as chromium, vanadium, iron, and copper were the primary cause for such high levels of loss. In response, glass manufacturers rose to the challenge and began to research the creation of ultra-pure products. In 1970, Peter Schultz, Robert Maurer, and Donald Keck of Corning Glass Works (now Corning Corporation) announced the development of a glass fiber that offered better attenuation than the recognized 20-dB threshold. Today, fiber manufacturers offer fiber so incredibly pure that 10 percent of the light arrives at a receiver placed 50 kilometers away. Put another way, a fiber with 0.2 dB of measured loss delivers more than 60 percent of the transmitted light over a distance of 10 kilometers. Remember the windowpane example Imagine glass so pure that you could see clearly through a window 10 kilometers thick.

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