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In teletraf c, we are often concerned with the irregular character of traf c, as it has been known for a long time, thanks to queueing theory (a major tool for the modeling of multiplexers), that the burstier a ow is the larger the queue content In this probabilistic framework, the question is how to re-examine what bursty traf c means We will answer this key question later, but it is appropriate to note here that both the time structure, described by cX (k), and the probability distribution play a part Often, the distribution is taken as Gaussian, in which case only the mean and variance count, but reality frequently forces us far from this convenient choice 1214 Two fundamental approaches Until now, we have not dealt in detail with data transmission, which is a complex subject in itself, incorporating numerous logical and physical layers built on top of each other However, it is hardly possible to have a clear vision of what teletraf c is without talking about certain essential aspects such as the paradigms of circuit switching and packet switching and the idea of protocols and their hierarchical organization Of course, the physical level, that is, the electronic or optical functioning of systems, does not concern us, though it an integral part of this system hierarchy To know more about these core concepts of telecommunications engineering, consult, for example, [TAN 88] In order to introduce circuit switching, let us examine a telephone network during the age of switchboards When a call was accepted and connected, an actual line of copper wire, a circuit, connected the parties Throughout the duration of the call, they enjoyed full use of the capacity of this circuit, even during silent periods when they had no need of it Furthermore, the circuit bandwidth was at their disposal regardless of the state of other circuits In more modern networks, we can no longer trace a physical circuit so explicitly, due to the diversity of technologies developed for the physical layer, although the essential characteristics of circuit switching remain the same Let us carry this a little further The idea of dividing the total bandwidth into equal portions, or circuits, leads to link characteristics which are predictable and constant Once a call is accepted, there is no doubt about the infrastructure provided: a xed quantity of bandwidth capable of being used by a service designed to function under such conditions If, on the contrary, the system is overloaded then there is no available circuit, which is an easily veri able situation without any ambiguity Therefore, this system is simple in principle, but suffers from the disadvantage of wasting resources; it is entirely possible that the bandwidth is highly under-used even though most or even all of the circuits are occupied To address the above disadvantage, packet switching proposes a sharing of resources whereby all ows are subdivided and the pieces sent independently over the same connection, without any detailed reservation Each packet is separately transported without any direct link to its brothers from the same connection We rely on the principle of statistic multiplexing described earlier to reduce the variability of.

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this unmanaged superposition, thereby allowing a higher number of simultaneous calls The chief disadvantage is the possibility that the capacity of the link might be reached, leading to a loss of packets Furthermore, the decision to admit a new ow, to accept a new connection, is not a simple matter but depends on a statistical judgment of the probability of a future link overload It is also necessary to plan how to manage packet losses, perhaps by retransmitting them, which would lead to more complicated systems of sending and receiving Nevertheless, packet switching offers the advantage of high ef ciency and also a vast range of services, such as telemetry, whose very low rate would not justify the allocation of an entire circuit, and the possibility, if a link is weakly loaded, of using a high proportion of the capacity to quickly transfer a huge le Evidently, there are hybrid systems existing between these two extremes For example, we can enrich circuit switching by means of priority classes to ensure, or at least to increase, the probability that certain traf c types (very costly ones, for example) always nd circuits available These two paradigms are the traditional conceptual extremes, which do not depend on the technology of the day but, on the contrary, will always play a role even if, as systems, technologies, services and pro tability criteria vary, one of the two will still dominate They can even exist simultaneously, at different levels in the protocol hierarchy A protocol is a language and a system by which agents can communicate In the case of packet switching, on the one hand it relates to the fact that each packet consists of two parts, the header containing, among other things, the destination and origin addresses, and the payload where the actual data resides On the other hand it relates to the computing infrastructure (software or hardware) that understands this structure and language to the bit level However, it is often true that a single language is not suf cient; this is certainly the case when a connection traverses different networks and therefore different technologies and protocols, as for example with the Internet Moreover, a system in which a single language is expected to manage the demands of all the functions and constraints of each level in the hierarchy would be unworkable; the task is therefore broken up An example of some importance is the relationship between the IP (Internet Protocol) and TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the functioning of today s Internet The former allows the transfer across different networks The IP headers contain globally meaningful addresses, suf cient information to steer each packet independently, without any knowledge of their fellow packets or their purpose At this level, a connection, that is, a ow established between two end points having certain properties such as reliable communication, does not exist Since it is often necessary to guarantee the arrival of all packets, it is essential to have another mechanism that carries the connection concept, capable of verifying the safe arrival of packets and of managing any necessary retransmissions This is the role of TCP, in which packets containing their own headers and data payloads are transported inside the IP packet payload Generally, there are several such layers which provide the link between high level applications and the technological, and then physical, layers To know more about the TCP/IP tag-team, the reader can refer to [STE 94].

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